Moses, who was the source of the earliest edition of the book of "Genesis," wrote his journals or books when the toponym "Rameses" was popular, during the time that his audience or readers could relate the whereabouts of "Goshen" and "Pihahiroth" (Gen 47:1,11, Num 33:5,7, cf. Exo 17:14).
In the prologue of the book of "Exodus," it is written that during the earlier days of Moses, a pharaoh built store-cities Pithom and Raamses by the Hebrews, who were under the daily quota of straw-made bricks.
Built several decades or a century after Joseph's death (1376 BCE), these projects were because of the anticipation of a war and of Hebrews that might have joined with the Egypt's enemies.
[6] Then Joseph died, and all his brothers, and all that generation.
[7] But the descendants of Israel were fruitful and increased greatly; they multiplied and grew exceedingly strong; so that the land was filled with them.
[8] Now there arose a new king over Egypt, who did not know Joseph.
[9] And he said to his people, “Look, the people of the sons of Israel are too many and too mighty for us.
[10] Come, let us deal shrewdly with them, lest they multiply, and, if war befall us, they join our enemies and fight against us and escape from the land.”
[11] Therefore they set taskmasters over them to afflict them with heavy burdens; and they built for Pharaoh store-cities,
Pithom and
Raamses.
[12] But the more they were oppressed, the more they multiplied and the more they spread abroad. And the Egyptians were in dread of the people of Israel.
[13] So they made the people of Israel serve with rigor,
[14] and made their lives bitter with hard service, in mortar and brick, and in all kinds of work in the field; in all their work they made them serve with rigor. -Exodus 1:6-14
HOW THEY DID GET THERE
Hebrews this time where in Wadi Tumilat, where Goshen, Pithom, and Succoth, in the southern part of the Land of Rameses, are located (Gen 47:1,11). The famine in 1450 BCE had brought the family of Jacob in Egypt. Scientific studies verify that indeed during that decade there was a drop of plants' population (amount of fossil pollens) in Mediterranean region, including in Canaan.
Archaeologically, in around 1449 BCE, Egyptians abandoned the area later called "Pithom" coincidentally when the Bible reported that Jacob (Israel) and his family transferred to Goshen because of a famine. They were Habiru (or immigrants) and Egyptians borrowed their word "Succoth" (Booths) and Egyptianized into "Tjekw," describing it as an area of foreigners, archaeologically Semitic people.
The Semitic people living in the Wadi Tumilat was associated by king Rameses II (1279-1213) to be men whose origin was Atum (Atmu), likely an Egyptianized form of "Adamu," which is "Amutu" in Babylonian or "Adam" in Hebrew language. This Atum was created out of the chaotic primordial waters, and later was deified by the Egyptians, who depicted him commonly as an elderly man or sometimes as an ape. In the teaching in Heliopolis, Atum is the first god identified with the mound (soil, earth) itself from the primordial Nu (waters). In the Bible, it is taught that Adam was from the ground and brought to the the Garden of Eden, which was watered by rivers in Karaca mountains, by Tigris, Euphrates, Gozan (Gihon) and Bahiani (Pihon) rivers. The teaching for Atum was emphasized in On (Heliopolis), where Joseph the Dreamer lived and where Moses (Yarsu) had probably taken his education (Gen 44:4-5, 46:20).
According to 2023 Encyclopaedia Britannica: "In one Egyptian myth, Atum caused a great flood that covered the entire earth and destroyed all humankind except those who remained in his boat. It was a story of deluge with similarities to the biblical tale of Noah and the Ark." It is found in the Book of the Dead, chapter 175, act 4:1-14 from the 13th century BCE Papyrus of Ani:
"jw.j grt r hd(t) Jr.t.n.j nb.t
But now I will destroy all that I have made.
jw t3 pn r j.y(t) m nwn
This land shall return into the Deep, into the flood (water).
m hwhw mj tpy.f'
as it was aforetime."
This gives us an idea that king Rameses II was right in identifying Atum as the patron creator of Moses, since Israelite Hebrews were identifying themselves as having originated from Adam (Adamu, Amutu, Atmu). In fact it was the first thing to learn by them that Adam came from
" 'apar min-ha adamah"
("dust of the ground"),
in which the Semitic term " 'apar " was probably used by the Egyptians to translate the Akkadian word "Habiru" (Aperu), which in Assyrian root word is "eberu" ("from other side of the river"). In Hurrian, its meaning became "hāpiri" (nomad).
The Hebrews themselves claimed that they were descended from Adam, the Amutu in Babylonian or Adamu in Assyrian record.
Rameses the Great founded "Pithom" or House of Atum to be a store-city in Tell el-Retabeh exactly in the place where the Hyksos descended Hebrews were inhabiting, and he erected Hildesheim Stela 374 in Pi-Rameses (c.1228 BCE) to report that Moses is "beloved by Atum." This Moses is distinguished from other Moseses that era by associating him with Atum.
In Assyrian language, "adamu" means "to make" or by implication "to create" and in Egyptian "itm" means "be completed" - hence Atum was understood as creator who was first to be named in around 2400-2300 BCE. And it was king Rameses II who gave the more importance for this Atum by founding a city after its name.
Encyclopaedia Britannica says that king Rameses II was the founder of "Pithom," understandably because the pharaoh has had categorically pronounced "I built Pithom in the East [of Delta]..." and there was no other Pithom prior to Ramesside period except what king Rameses II had built.
The first founded Pithom was located in the now Tell el-Retabeh in the 13th century BCE. In the doorway 15 there, was found the cartouche of king Rameses II. A group of granite statues representing Ramesses II, two inscriptions naming "Pr-Itm" or Pithom (Temple of Atum), storehouses and bricks made lacking with straw were also found in this city, and since this city was dated in the 13th century BCE archaeological stratum it is positively identified with the store-city Pithom and it is the evidence that Rameses II indeed did really exist in that century, and it was the first fortress in Tell el-Retabeh since the time of that pharaoh, hence the Septuagint has translated "Pithom" together with Raamses with the description πόλεις ὀχυραί "fortified cities."
During the time of his successor and son, Merneptah (Nephtoah), Pithom was identified to be located in the region or district known Succoth (Tjeku).
To finish a canal, probably king Necho II (c. 606 BCE) carried out construction in the area of Tell el-Maskhutah, where later a king of the 30th dynasty (380–343 BCE) - to adorn this later city - had probably brought the red sandstone of naos of Rameses II, carved granite blocks depicting Rameses II or granite figure of a falcon which was inscribed for Rameses II, a plaque where Rameses has documented his building of Pithom in the east of Nile Delta, and so on from Tell el-Retabeh.
1) Corroborative Evidence of Exodus 1:6
It is apparent that monotheism entered Egypt during the time of Joseph (d.1376 BCE), and yes in 1345 BCE king Akhenaten started to popularize the belief that there is only one God of gods, which later (1342 BCE) he declared as the 'only true God.' In Hebrew it could be called "Adon" ("Lord"), but Akhenaten borrowed his father's terminology "Aton" ("Aten"), and redefined it as 'the source of the light of the sun.' Like in the practice of Abraham and Joseph, this God has no image or idol, and Akhenaten made sure that there is no idol to be made for this God, even though his traditionalist servants were still using idols for other gods. This fact added to the credence of Moses' report about the proximity of the death of the monotheistic influencer (Joseph) to the pharaoh who built Pithom and Raamses, giving insight that Pithom was built around the 13th century BCE.
2) Corroborative Evidence of Exodus 1:7
Between the onset of monotheism in Egypt during the time of Akhenaten (1350 -1334) and the building of Pithom and Raamses, the descendants of Israel became populous in Egypt, expectedly because that was the period where many captives (e.g. Apiru, Shasu, Kharu) were brought to Egypt from Syria-Palestine. As a result Israelite presence during the time of Merneptah (Nephtoah) was enough to catch the attention of the pharaoh, who had the plan to annihilate them. Of all the tribes in Negev and Syria-Palestine, it was Israel which has a population or might enough to disturb the military stability of Egypt and Canaan, triggering the pharaoh to plan to completely destroy them.
Merneptah Stele (JE 31408) is the direct epigraphic evidence for the existence of vagabond tribe Israel in 1208 BCE near Kharu or Horite state in Seir. But unlike to other enemies, Merneptah (Nephtoah) does not describe Israel as a state, city or a land foreign to him, rather a tribe directly described as "many men and women" fighting or revolting against him. He located them near Kharu (Horite state in Seir). These wandering Israelites had probably infiltrated Yenoam (Kedesh), where Heber and Jael lived, Ashkelon, and Gezer after Midianites plundered Megiddo or Canaan that's why the pharaoh needed to quell these vagabond's disturbances. The population of Israel during their exodus (1228-1189 BCE) was enough to disturb the pharaoh, cities and tribes in Canaan.
3) Corroborative Evidence of Exodus 1:8
Prior to the new dynasty, the records for the monotheistic pharaohs (from Akhenaten to Ay) were deliberately destroyed and erased from Egyptian official historical records as a possible king Horemheb's revenge to his considered usurper, Ay, and the family of Akhenaten. With this situation, Moses is accurate (Exodus 1:8) in telling that the new king (or the new dynasty) does not know about Joseph (idol-less monotheistic starter in Egypt) during the earlier days of the builder of Raamses as the absence of monotheistic pharaohs in government documents could entail. Supporting to this is the fact that king Seti I (Abydos king list) and Rameses II (Turin King List) do not include the monotheistic pharaohs in their official king lists.
HIDING THE INFORMATION
"Now there arose up a new king over Egypt, which knew not Joseph." - Exodus 1:8
This reflects the belief of Moses that the new pharaoh of the new dynasty knew nothing about Israelite patriarch in Egypt, particularly about Joseph (1486-1376 BCE). This may mean the trace of Joseph ("Hotep") could not be found in Egyptian official records, as Moses had taken his education there and learned history and probably he haven't found it there.
One of the possible reasons why traces of monotheistic personalities were unknown was because a scribe who became a pharaoh had destroyed the Amarna period records.
In around 1320 BCE Horemheb declared himself king, and promptly began eliminating all traces of Tutankhamun, and totally destroyed the temples of Aten, took over Ay's mortuary temple and all the monuments of Ay and Tutankhamen.
Horemheb revived the priesthood of Amen (Amun), making its priests military officers under his claws, and he opened all the old temples.
He destroyed all possible records for the Amarna period, to the point that he chronicled himself as the king after Amenhotep III (1390-1351 BCE).
He omitted in official records the names of
Akhenaten (1350-1334),
Neferneferuaten (1337-1333),
Smenkhkhare (1333-1332),
Tutankhamen (1333-1323), and
Ay (1323-1320 BCE).
Since king Rameses II (1279-1213 BCE) did not include in Egyptian kinglist the names of these Amarna pharaohs, it is understandable for Moses to say that the pharaoh did not know about the monotheistic people of Egypt, particularly that Akhenaten did not erect an idol for Aten and no temples of Amarna kings survived conspicuously in his time.
The new religion of Akhenaten was considered heretic and illegal by later pharaohs not because of the name "Aten" but because of its doctrine that there is only one God and that names of other gods are not officially allowed in temples, the reason why Akhenaten closed other temples and deliberately erased other god's names.
But many did not like this new practice, and still worshipped other gods, and when time came that the boy Tutankhaten became the king, they coerced him to abandon Amarna city. Polytheistic priests were still influential even in Amarna. When king Ay died, Horemheb instigated a policy of damnatio memoriae against everyone associated with the Amarna period and at his order Amarna city was torn apart.
From Horemheb to Rameses III was the period when Amarna monotheistic people were tried to be hidden from Egyptian records.
That a pharaoh could intentionally erase a person's name from official record is evident in what king Rameses II did to the name of Mehi (most likely an alias of Moses), the man who could be the reason of the successes of his father, Seti I.
4) Corroborative Evidence of Exodus 1:9
That the people of the sons of Israel is mightier than Egyptians is evidenced by the fact that even the pharaoh Merneptah caught his attention to their disturbances in Negev and Canaan while they were wandering near Kharu (Horite state in Seir). If this tribe Israel has no capability, then there was no reason for the pharaoh to be affected and to plan to annihilate them. Additional to it is the report of Ipuwer in the 19th Dynasty (1292-1189 BCE) Admonitions that the man who poured water on the ground (identified in Exo 4:9-10 as "Moses") has brought the strong person (pharaoh) of Egypt into misery during the time that Egyptians resulting later to difficulty in sailing to Byblos and Caphtor in Cyprus. And in the last paragraph of that Admonitions' chapter II the case of Moses is probably brought into light:
"Indeed, the well-born man [. . .] through lack of recognition, and the child of his lady has become the son of his maidservant."
Ipuwer is confused of who really was the mother of a particular son, the Princess or the maidservant, and sarcastically he might have insulted Moses by saying:
"[Behold, he who did not know] his god now offers to him with incense of another [who is] not known [to him]."
Moses corroborated it in Exodus 3:13.
The following are some of what had happened during the Late Bronze Age Collapse in Egypt as observed by Ipuwer:
/// The door [keepers] say: "Let us go and plunder." ...
The washerman refuses to carry his load...
The bird [catchers] have drawn up in line of battle [. . . the inhabitants] of the Delta carry shields...
... the tribes of the desert have become Egyptians everywhere."
Indeed, Shasu of the Land of Yahweh and Israel, which are relatives of Edom, became Egyptian citizens in one way or another, and this was more conspicuous when Tausert conspired with Yar-su (Moses). King Rameses II did not describe Shasu Land of Yahweh with "foreign" hieroglyphic determinative, and not even his son king Merneptah identified Israel as "foreign." It is either Shasu of the Land of Yahweh and Israel were one and the same stuff, or Israel was somehow related to the said Shasu. Nevertheless, there are official government documents which recognize that particular Shasu and Israel not as foreigners.
In the books of Israelite exodus we can discern a lot of Egyptian derived words.
It was during the time of Queen Tausert when a prophecy was believed to become effective, and it was in fulfilment when Setnakhte took the throne. Ipuwer also observed its manifestation, and said:
"Indeed, the face is pale; what the ancestors foretold has arrived at [fruition . . .] the land is full of confederates...
Indeed, the plunderer [. . .] everywhere, and the servant takes what he finds...
II Indeed, poor men have become owners of wealth, and he who could not make sandals for himself is now a possessor of riches."
While king Rameses II was hiding the environment's problem, Ipuwer boldly reported it:
"Indeed, [hearts] are violent, pestilence is throughout the land, blood is everywhere, death is not lacking, and the mummy-cloth speaks even before one comes near it.
Indeed, many dead are buried in the river; the stream is a sepulcher and the place of embalmment has become a stream....
Indeed, the river is blood, yet men drink of it. Men shrink from human beings and thirst after water.
Indeed, gates, columns and walls are burnt up, while the hall of the palace stands firm and endures."
In Exodus it is explicitly described that a thunder (explosion) of hail (frozen) superbolide caused rain of fire upon Rameses city and smote
"... throughout all the land of Egypt all that was in the field, both man and animal; and the hail smote every herb of the field, and brake every tree of the field." -Exodus 9:25
Ipuwer, however, described that only ordinary Egyptians were affected, whereas the hall of the palace stands firm.
"Indeed, the ship of [the southerners] has broken up; towns are destroyed and Upper Egypt has become an empty waste."
This Ipuwer's report about destruction of the towns in the southern Egypt is corroborative by Bakenkhonsu in 1186 BCE, adding to the confusion of king Setnakhte after the troops of the deceased Yar-su (Moses) still affecting Egypt.
"Indeed, men are few, and he who places his brother in the ground is everywhere. When the wise man speaks, [he flees without delay]."
This was one of the major problems of Egypt, because of continuous war since the time of Merneptah till Ramesses III, they are lacking men to fight, and could hardly gain the cooperation of tribes in Canaan because of the more lenient policy of Yar-su (Moses), that is, don't bring offerings to Egyptian gods because those gods are like ordinary men.
"Indeed, the desert is throughout the land, the nomes are laid waste, and barbarians from abroad have come to Egypt.
Indeed, men arrive [. . .] and indeed, there are no Egyptians anywhere.
Indeed, gold and lapis lazuli, silver and turquoise, carnelian and amethyst, Ibhet-stone ... [. . .] are strung on the necks of maidservants. Good things are throughout the land, (yet) housewives say: "Oh that we had something to eat!" - Ipuwer, III
Moses gives the reason for this incident. He ordered that female Hebrews should plunder Egypt with silver, gold and raiment. King Setnakhte (1190-1186 BCE) revealed the secret that those silver, gold and precious metal were used to pay combatants: unfortunately, Egyptian leaders were bribed by the troops of Yar-su (Moses) to be combatants against the pharaoh (Elephantine stela, lines 4, 9).
King Ramesses III even testified that land abroad is no longer faithful to Egypt since the time Rameses II kept quiet about the plundering activities of Yar-su or Moses (Harris Papyrus I, 75, lines 3-6).
Cyprus and Byblos are no longer sympathetic to Egypt.
And Ipuwer wrote:
"Indeed, the builders [have become] cultivators, and those who were in the sacred bark are now yoked [to it]. None shall indeed sail northward to Byblos today; what shall we do for cedar trees for our mummies, and with the produce of which priests are buried and with the oil of which [chiefs] are embalmed as far as Caphtor? They come no more; gold is lacking [. . .] and materials for every kind of craft have come to an end. The [treasure] of the palace is despoiled....
IV Indeed, every dead person is as a well-born man. Those who were Egyptians [have become] foreigners and are thrust aside."
When Queen Tausert conspired with Yar-su (Moses), general Setnakhte and company were thrown aside and treated as against Egypt in 1190 BCE. Chancellor Bey was killed in 1193 BCE in the pretext of being a traitor. Queen Tausert secured her alliance with the Asherite troop of Moses in Akko and Sidon, and threw out her political adversaries.
Through Ipuwer we learned that the troops of Yar-su (Moses) entered the clandestine place, a place that even general Setnakhte and Ramesses III did not know during the regency of Tausert. By Kenite Midianites, Moses' troops entered the mining sites of Athika (Timna Valley, Edom).
"Indeed, the Delta in its entirety will not be hidden, and Lower Egypt puts trust in trodden roads. What can one do? No [. . .] exist anywhere, and men say: "Perdition to the secret place!" Behold, it is in the hands of those who do not know it like those who know it. The desert dwellers are skilled in the crafts of the Delta."
Ipuwer corroborated Moses' report and Late Bronze Age Collapse situation.
"V .... Indeed, all animals, their hearts weep; cattle moan because of the state of the land....
Indeed, slaves . . . throughout the land, and the strong man sends to everyone; a man strikes his maternal brother. What is it that has been done? I speak to a ruined man....
Indeed, that has perished which yesterday was seen, and the land is left over to its weakness like the cutting of flax, commoners coming and going in dissolution [. . .].
VI Would that there were an end of men, without conception, without birth! Then would the land be quiet from noise and tumult be no more."
Ipuwer gives us hints why their are shortages of foods, clothing, and oil, and Moses and science reveal that this was because of famine or drought and plundering of Moses' troops, but later Merneptah claimed that he had put to desolation Israel and brought to nought its seeds. Science, on the other hand confirmed that from the time of king Rameses II till more or less 100 years there was famine in Mediterranean, including Egypt.
"Indeed, [men eat] herbage and wash [it] down with water; neither fruit nor herbage can be found [for] the birds, and [. . .] is taken away from the mouth of the pig. No face is bright which you have [. . .] for me through hunger."
Ipuwer has cited the incident during king Ramesses III's reign, when workers stopped working and had a labor strike in 1158 BCE in village of Deir el-Medina.
"Indeed, everywhere barley has perished and men are stripped of clothes, spice, and oil; everyone says: "There is none." The storehouse is empty and its keeper is stretched on the ground; a happy state of affairs! . . . .
Indeed, the laws of the council chamber are thrown out; indeed, men walk on them in public places, and poor men break them up in the streets.
Indeed, the poor man has attained to the state of the Nine Gods, and the erstwhile procedure of the House of the Thirty is divulged.
Indeed, the great council-chamber is a popular resort, and poor men come and go to the Great Mansions."
At Ipuwer's point of view, burning of their enemies by an erupted fire is good for them. The location of this incident was in an area of Makhtesh Ramon.
"Behold, the fire has gone up on high, and its burning goes forth against the enemies of the land.
Behold, things have been done which have not happened for a long time past; the king has been deposed by the rabble." - Ipuwer, VII
Moses admitted that he was with the rabble, who were burned alive by fire and eaten by the earth (Num 26:10). Ipuwer knew also the incident that those rabble men were killed by fire.
The population of Israel was not surpassing Egypt's, and yet the 598 elef (roundedly 600 elef) foot-persons enabled to deprived the pharaoh's kingship, as observed by Ipuwer:
"Behold, it has befallen that the land has been deprived of the kingship by a few lawless men."
Whether Ipuwer directly witnessed the incident when Moses poured water on the ground or not, we are not so sure. But he wrote:
"Behold, Egypt is fallen to pouring of water, and he who poured water on the ground has carried off the strong man in misery."
Moses revealed why he did this. He did this after the pharaoh was not convinced about changing of rod into serpent (Exo 4:3-9).
But Ipuwer said that the secret is made known.
"Behold, the Serpent is taken from its hole, and the secrets of the Kings of Upper and Lower Egypt are divulged."
For Ipuwer the reason why their enemy could overpower them is because many secrets were divulged to the enemy. But Moses' testimony is not because he knew the Egyptian secrets, rather because of Yahweh, which he encountered in Sinai (Makhtesh Ramon) in the Land of Yahweh.
Ipuwer insulted them by calling them cowards who knotted up with confederacies.
"Behold, the land has knotted itself up with confederacies, and the coward takes the brave man's property."
Both Moses and king Ramesses III talked about these alliances (Deut 33:5, KRI V 39.14-50).
"Behold, this has happened [to] men; he who could not build a room for himself is now a possessor of walls."
This observation of Ipuwer in 12th century BCE is of one of the new developments among Israel. The 12th-11th century BCE Israelites invented the 4-room house by modifying Mittelsaal Haus of the 19th century BCE Syrians in Avaris. And yes, Ipuwer is accurate in his claim that man who could not build house was now owner of walls.
"Behold, he who could not build a boat for himself is now the possessor of a fleet; their erstwhile owner looks at them, but they are not his....
VIII ....Behold, the poor of the land have become rich, and the [erstwhile owner] of property is one who has nothing....
Behold, the children of magistrates are ... of cattle [are given over] to the plunderers." -Ipuwer Papyrus, Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage
Moses admitted that he had commanded Hebrews to plunder their Egyptian bosses, friends, etc. of silver, gold, and raiment (Exo 12:35-37).
Ipuwer is likely referring to the tribes of Asherites (Ekwesh), Issacharites (Shakares), and Danites (Denyen) when he wrote:
"Look, he who could not build a boat for himself is now the possessor of a fleet; their erstwhile owner looks at them, but they are not his."
PAPYRUS IPUWER
Ipuwer was a scribe in the 19th Dynasty (1292-1189 BCE), who wrote misery in Egypt during the latter years of Rameses II, 1229-1213 BCE, till Rameses III (1186-1155), particularly when Egyptians could hardly sail to Byblos and Caphtor, Cyprus. Such difficulty to sail to Byblos and Cyprus was confirmed by Wenamun a century later.
The papyrus of Ipuwer has no other copy, and written not earlier than 1250 BCE. Its contents corroborate the report of scribe Hori (Satirical Letter), king Merneptah (Victory Stele, etc.), Setnakhte (Elephantine stela), Rameses III's Harris Papyrus (1155 BCE), priest Manetho (Aegyptiaca), & Moses, & vividly describe what had happened during the Late Bronze Age Collapse that triggered the weakening of Egypt.
Ipuwer reported that...
"Plague is throughout the land. Blood is everywhere.
The river is blood." -Ipuwer 2:5,6,10
River became deadly after turning into color blood. In Hebrew perspective, this was because YHWH shows His power over the pharaoh.
"Behold, the fire has mounted up on high, its burning goes forth against the enemies of the land." -Ipuwer 7:1
Moses corroborated about this volcanic eruption that happened in the Land of Yahweh (Makhtesh Ramon) that had eaten alive his rebels in 1227, c.1214-1208 BCE, etc. (Deut.32:22).
"And the earth opened her mouth, and ... the fire devoured 250 men ..." -Numbers 26:10
"Forsooth, gates, columns & walls are consumed by fire.
Lower Egypt weeps. The entire palace is without its revenues. To it belong [by right] wheat and barley, geese and fish.
Forsooth, grain has perished on every side.
Forsooth, that has perished which was yesterday seen. The land is left over to it's weariness like the cutting of flax."
-Ipuwer 2:10, 10:3-6, 6:3, 5:12
This was the major cause and concern why the Late Bronze Age Collapse happened.
"Forsooth, the children of princess are cast out in the streets.
The prison is ruined.
He who places his brother in the ground is everywhere.
It is groaning throughout the land, mingled with lamentations" -Ipuwer 6:12,3, 2:13, 3:14
King Merneptah confirmed this in his stela, and Moses' reason was that it's YHWH's judgment against the Egyptian gods, particularly the pharaoh.
King Rameses II anticipated how mightier the descendants of Israel even before they managed to escape from Egypt.
5) Corroborative Evidence
In Exodus 1:10, it seems that the pharaoh (who built Pithom and Raamses) was knowledgeable of how to deal with slaves wisely, and he was anticipating a war where their subjects might have joined with their enemies. This happened during the early days of king Rameses II, when cities under his jurisdiction around Canaan were conspiring with the Hittite monarch and readying to fight Rameses. As a response, king Rameses established his Semitic workers in Pithom where he made a strong fortification and he made an ingenious capital city walled by water and named it Pi-Rameses Great his Domain, which Moses called Raamses. This city was built on a virgin ground not older than the palace of king Seti I, thus it is not referring to Avaris, which is two kilometers distant from Raamses city.
6) Factual Evidence of Exodus 1:11
It is a fact in Egyptian history and archaeology that one pharaoh (king Rameses II) built both Pithom and Rameses as store-cities to ready the empire for an impending war.
"Therefore they did set over them taskmasters to afflict them with their burdens. And they built for Pharaoh store-cities,
Pithom and Raamses."
- Exodus 1:11
Archaeologically and historically speaking, there was no pharaoh who built both store-cities Pithom and Raamses except king Rameses II the Great (1279-1213 BCE).
Pithom was located in Tell el-Retabeh formerly full of supplies for military purposes and for the Semitic people living there. After about a millennium, king of the 30th dynasty transferred some of the materials of king Rameses' Pithom to Tell el-Maskhutah to grandiosely invigorate the latter, which later was misidentified as the original Pithom city. Some writers are tempted to think that Tell el-Maskhutah, which was reconstructed in the 7th century BCE, is the evidence that king Rameses II existed in the 7th century BCE, or that the pharaoh existed in the 4th century BCE because materials of Pithom were found in those layers. But this is very absurd, and can be simply explained as the Pithom of Rameses II was transferred in Tell el-Maskhutah from Tell el-Retabeh, and in fact a Latin inscription found in Tell el-Maskhutah is describing that
"from Ero [Pithom] (on the road) to Clysma [Suez, there is] 14 kilometers" (cf. Gardiner, JEA, V [1918], 269),
or Pithom was 14 km (9 miles); to the east, Tell el-Maskhutah. Recent scientific study eventually came to recognise that none of these Rameses II's materials and inscriptions originated at the site of Tell el-Maskhutah.
Supporting to this western location of the original city is the meaning of the Egyptian phrase "Pa-tum" ("city of the setting sun"), which toponym probably later transferred to On (Heliopolis). This could be Herodotus' (ii.158) reported Arabian city "Patoumos," between Tell el-Retabeh and Zagazig, around 30 miles west of Lake Timsah.
Some atheists, antagonists of the Bible's historicity, and anti-Moses theists alike are using Tell el-Maskhutah as evidence that the Pithom of Rameses II was built in the 7th century BCE, to mean that the Bible (Torah) is written around 7th century BCE as evidenced of its mentioning Pithom and Raamses. These 7th century BCE proponents are in error because the last mention of "Per-Temu" ("Pithom") is inscribed on the red granite statue of the ‘Great inspector of the Palace’, Ankh-khered-nefer, officer of Osorkon II (923-888 BCE). The statue was found in Tell el-Maskhutah (Naville, Pithom, plate 4) and is now in the British Museum.
A granite statue of the solar god Re-Horakhty in the form of a falcon, inscribed for king Rameses II, was also dug in Tell el-Maskhutah and now held at the British Museum.
These two granite statues confused Naville, who thought that the Pithom of Rameses II was built in Tell el-Maskhutah. Adding to this confusion is the 7th century BCE date of the area and the 4th century BCE layer of the materials of Rameses II. This tends to other thinkers to suppose that king Rameses II built his temple of Atum (Pithom) during the time of Osorkon II in the 7th century BCE when the pharaoh of the 4th century BCE was reigning. Obviously, this absurdity of unbelievers is wrong. It simply means a pharaoh of the 30th dynasty transferred king Rameses II's materials to the 7th century BCE area where an officer of king Osorkon II had formerly erected a statue in the 9th century BCE.
Needless to say, the Pithom of Rameses II was already transferred during the time of king Osorkon II. Famine was severe in the time of Rameses II, as evidenced by the drying up of Pelusic branch river and of lake of Goshen and drop of the plants' population. The transferring from Tell el-Retabeh to Succoth was likely started when his son Merneptah was reigning, as king Merneptah was making water supply for his messengers and officers in Wadi Tumilat, which might have lead to find more water in the eastern part of Wadi Tumilat.
Most of the 1Kings 6:1 and Josephus' contenders of Exodus rejected the report of Moses about store-cities Pithom and Raamses, on the ground that Moses has also mentioned "Rameses" in Genesis 47:11 (as they are rejecting the belief that it was Moses who wrote the original of Genesis), also because non-eyewitness writer (670 years after Moses) calculated the going out of Israel's sons from Egypt 480 years before the building of temple in Jerusalem in the 4th year of king Solomon, and last because judge Jephthah mentioned 300 years after the stay of Israel in Arnon (giving 1483 BCE as exodus' date). All of these reasons versus Moses' testimony play an important role every time the chronology of Israelite Exodus is being discussed, and majority of schooled pastors, bible students or scholars, and commentators are subscribing to 1Kings 6:1's calculation or Josephus' opinions about how to determine the timeline of Exodus. Contrary to them, the National Geographic, Encyclopaedia Britannica, film makers, some Egyptologists, and historian archaeologists are using Moses' testimony, particularly the timeline of Pithom and Raamses. Archaeology clearly supports Moses' testimony rather than Josephus' comments or advocators of 1Kings 6:1.
An example is the archaeological Pithom built in the 13th century BCE by king Rameses II at Tell el-Retabeh. It was this pharaoh who first built a city with the name "Pr-itm" ("Pithom"). Moses is proved correct that the workers who built it were Semitic people, as evidence found in the city shows child burial, a practice associated to Hyksos from Canaan or Syria-Palestine. Moses is proved accurate when he reported that the Hebrews made bricks, and the bricks are made of straw, and some bricks are lacking of straw.
This settlement in Tell el-Retabeh is the direct corroboration of the claim of Moses that there was a pharaoh who built Pithom as store-city and that the workers made bricks of straw there.
The Polish-Slovak Archaeological Mission headed by Sławomir Rzepka and Jozef Hudec in cooperation with the Institute of Archaeology, Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, and Aigyptos Foundation discovered here the first fortress in Tell el-Retabeh, which was built by Rameses II (1279-1213 BCE). Instead of the usual stones, its walls, 6 meters thick, were made of mud-bricks with straw.
The workers? Evidence shows few child burials in it, which indicate that the workers were relatives of Hyksos. Archaeologists found here Rameses II's "Pithom" or temple of Atum, defense walls, garrison barracks, workshops, and granaries. These proved that Moses is accurate in his description for Pithom as a store-city.
Some materials of this city were transferred to Tell el-Maskhutah, including probably the bricks.
The pharaoh in 1229 BCE ordered his masters to let workers search straw for their bricks as a punishment after Moses asked him 3-day rest for the Hebrews.
"And Pharaoh commanded the same day the taskmasters of the people, and their officers, saying, Ye shall no more give the people straw to make brick, as heretofore: let them go and gather straw for themselves." - Exodus 5:6-7
This city was located in the middle of Wadi Tumilat, the stretch of a valley called Tjeku & Succoth by Egyptians and Hebrews, respectively.
Officer of king Merneptah, the son of Rameses, says that the 'Pithom,' Etham (Khetam) and the pools of Merneptah were both located in Tjeku (Succoth).
Egyptians were dwelling here but had abandoned it around 1449 BCE, coincided with the arrival of the family of Jacob in Egypt.
Before that, between 17th & 16th century BCE, Hyksos lived in the city, built their houses and cemetery in it.
During the time of Rameses II the relatives of these Hyksos lived again in it until they abandoned it (1228 BCE).
Around 14 km to east, in Maskutah, where materials of this city were transferred, was found by Prof. Edouard Naville in 1883 the inscription of Rameses II saying:
"I built Pithom at the mouth of the East."
This confirms Exodus 1:11 for this pharaoh was also the builder of Rameses city.
"And Moses wrote their journeys... And they departed from
Rameses
on the 15th of the 1st month..." - Numbers 33:2-3
This toponym indicates its builder, the pharaoh who was this time hit by series of calamities, both natural and man-made, which are written by the 19th dynasty (1292-1189 BCE) scribe Ipuwer. Another project named from the builder is the Well of Nephtoah (Merneptah), reported in Joshua 18:15 and corroborated by Amenomopet in Papyrus Anastasi III in circa 1211 BCE (cf. ANET 1969, 258).
These strengthen the biblical claim that Moses, Joshua and company left Egypt during the time of Rameses.
The reason why king Rameses II rushed to build the city of Pi-Rameses in Qantir above of and 2 kilometer from Avaris was the expected war that the Hittite government was escalating against Egyptians, which corroborated the report of Exodus 1:9-11 that the pharaoh was suspecting that Hebrews might have joined with their enemies on the impending war.
The city was around 6 x 3 km (3.7 x 1.9 miles) and consisted of a huge central temple, a large precinct of mansions bordering the river in the west set in a rigid grid pattern of streets, and a disorderly collection of houses and workshops in the east. Manfred Bietak, head of the Austrian archaeologists who dug the site, discovered that it was like Venice - having many canals and lakes. These bodies of waters were used as defensive "walls" against horses, donkeys, and camels of the enemies. Moses has used this 13th century BCE Egyptian idiom 'water wall' in his report.
"And the children of Israel went into the midst of the sea upon the dry [ground]: and the waters [were] a wall unto them on their right hand, and on their left." -Exodus 14:22
"And the children of Israel went into the midst of the sea upon the dry [ground]: and the waters [and] a wall unto them on their right hand, and on their left." -Exodus 14:22
The intention of king Rameses to surround his palace or capital city with waters was to protect him from chivalry invaders.
It was in 1275 BCE when he built "Pi-Rameses," which is called "Raamses" in Exodus 1:11. This was a store-city at first where he built factories to manufacture 1,000 weapons, 250 chariots, and 700 shields in a week. Raamses or Pi-Rameses was built on a virgin soil, not older than the palace of king Seti I.
Two kilometers (1.25 mi) underground east of this city was the much older Avaris (ḥw.t wꜥr.t), which was founded by pharaoh Amenemhat I (1991-1962): the builders of this founded Avaris were not Hebrews but Egyptians.
This Avaris (Tell el-Dabˁa) had reduced its significance and buried under the ground, above of which became an extension of Pi-Rameses during the reign of Rameses II. Moses called the less significant Avaris with the toponym "Pihahiroth" (Egyptian: pr hwt hrt), or Estate of Hwt-hrt (Hwt w'rt). Moses seems to describe this Pihahiroth as their second station after leaving Rameses and they returned to this probably to gather another relatives after joining with the Hebrews in Succoth.
The Avaris city of Hyksos was no longer in existence because it was under the soil during the time of Moses. The inhabitants of Pi-Rameses used the large areas of Avaris' ground as a cemetery, burial ground, and a major navy base, where its harbor was known to that era as "Harbor of Avaris." The scribes of 1225 BCE had still known the place with the toponym Avaris as referred to in Papyrus Sallier I (ANET, p. 231, by James Pritchard), and this may mean that if Hebrew judges or scribe would change the toponym of their exodus' origin in Egypt, the name would be Avaris and not Rameses. But Moses, not the presumed latter scribe, identified their geographic origin of exodus as "Rameses" (Num 33:2-5). Why? Because Israelites had their first exit of their exodus from Rameses and not from Avaris. In fact Israelites did not come from Avaris as
"they said unto Moses, Because there were no graves in Egypt ..." -Exodus 14:11
Avaris in the 16th and 13th century BCE have graves, and Hebrews in the time of Moses had no knowledge of graves in Raamses. Therefore, Israelites did not come from Avaris but from Rameses city. There were no graves in Raamses because Egyptians used Avaris as graveyard. The Avaris known to Israelites was not the graveyard Avaris but the area containing the Pihahiroth (temple of Avaris). Apiru or Shasu were workers in such a temple.
The only good thing, Moses distinguishes Pihahiroth (Estate of Avaris) from Rameses, as Avaris was less significant than Rameses during their exodus. Therefore, Rameses, Pihahiroth (Estate of Avaris) and Pithom are not anachronistic toponyms for the timeline of Israelite Exodus, and an editor would name Israelite exodus' geographical origin "Avaris" if Israel took their exit from Avaris, as Avaris was also known in the 13th century BCE. But the writer of original books of Torah used the pharaoh's name because Israel made their exit from Rameses.
"And Moses wrote their journeys... And [Israel] departed from Rameses on the 15th day of the 1st month..." - Numbers 33:2-3
Three Important Key Words in this History:
Avaris: founded by Amenemhat I (c. 1970 BCE) not as a store-city or treasure city, but as a settlement.
Pithom: founded by king Rameses II (1279-1213) to be a store-city.
Rameses: founded by king Rameses the Great as a store-city and the capital city of Egypt in 1275 BCE.
Moses lived during the days of Pithom and Raamses (Rameses), and not during the time of Amenemhat I (c.1970 BCE).
7) Corroborated Evidence of Exodus 1:12
Slaves during the 13th century BCE had the tendency to escape because of inhumane treatment.
"But the more they afflicted them, the more they multiplied and grew. And they were grieved because of the descendants of Israel." -Exodus 1:12
An incident or affliction that triggered a escape of slaves is also reported in the
PAPYRUS ANASTASI V, 19.2 -20.6
Two slaves who runaway from royal residence to Shur wilderness via walled place, north of Migdol which mirrors or gives insight how Moses or Israel could escape from Egypt to Kenite land.
The letter is written during the time of king Seti I (1290-1279 BCE) using hieratic script.
The letter is popular with the title:
PURSUIT OF RUNAWAY SLAVES
"The Bowman Chief of Succoth, Kakemwar, to the Bowman Chief Ani & the Bowman Chief Bakenptah, In life, prosperity, and health! (L.p.h.)
...
Another matter to wit: I was sent forth from the broad-hills of the palace - L.p.h.! - in the 3rd month of the 3rd season, day 9, at the time of evening,
FOLLOWING AFTER THESE TWO SLAVES.
Now when I reached the enclosure-wall of Succoth on the 3rd month of the 3rd season, day 10, they told me they were saying to the south that they had passed by on day 10 in the 3rd month of 3rd season. Now when I reached the fortress they told me that the scout had come from the desert saying that they had passed the walled place north of the
Migdol
of Seti Mer-ne-Ptah, L.p.h.! Beloved like Seth.
When my letter reaches you, write to me about all that has transpired to them.
Who found their tracks? Which watch found their tracks? What people went after them? Write to me about all that has happened to them and how many people you sent out after them.
(May your health) be good!"
-Papyrus Anastasi 5, 19.2-20.6
(cf. James N. Pritchard, ANET, Princeton, 1969, p. 259)
Kakemwer said that he "was sent forth from the broad-hills of the palace," in which the palace is referring to the one in Pi-Rameses, to the west of Migdol. There was an intricate passage in the area and this letter of Kakemwer, chief of bowmen of Tjeku (Succoth), gives us an insight that Moses knew what he is talking about in the escape of Israel during the time of Rameses; when they went to Succoth and then near to Migdol and walled place before passing into the wilderness.
We cannot fully know for now why there was an intricate passage because only those who lived that era could know. The writer of the original Israelite exodus must have lived that time to know those intricate passages.
Migdol, of Seti, is also mentioned by Moses to be located somewhere between Baalzephon, Pihahiroth, and Etham or Shur of the wilderness.
8) Corroborated Evidence of Exodus 1:13
Israelites this time were known with the designation "Hebrews" (ibrim), the root word of which is derived from Semitic ʿeber ("other side"), referring to the other side of Euphrates River, where Abraham had originated. In Akkadian language it is Habiru or 'Aperu, the 'Apiru in Egyptian records, which means "those who cross from the other side, nomads" (“ebēru,” in The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago [CAD], volume 4, E, Chicago: University of Chicago Oriental Institute, 1958, page 10).
There were mercenary group and priest group of Habiru, besides of the biblical truth that not all Hebrews (descendants of Eber) were Israelites. Abraham came from a priest group of Habiru (Hebrews), and he received this title "Hebrew" when a certain confederation between him and Habiru Amorites was formed during the war made by the troops of king Amarpiel of Qatna (Shinar) in circa 1664 BCE. Since then, his descendants, particularly Joseph and Israelites, were known by the designation "Hebrews."
That Habiru (Hebrews, Apiru) were workmen for the projects of king Rameses II in Delta is not just a claim, rather it is a fact.
HABIRU WORKERS OF RAMESES II
Simultaneous building projects of Rameses II (1279-1213 BCE) required a lot of workers from north to south. Amenmonē was reminded, saying:
"A further matter: I have taken note of my lord's reminder telling me: 'Give grain rations the soldiers and the Apiru who are drawing (water from) the well of Pre of Rameses the Great, L.p.h., south of Hut-ka-ptah (Ai-gy-ptos).' Farewell!" - Papyrus Leiden 349 (cf. Wente 1990:124)
and was charged to...
"Distribute grain rations to the people of the army and to the 'Apiru who are dragging stones for the great pylon [temple gateway of the palace] of [Rameses II] " - Papyrus Leiden 348,6,6 (cf. Gardiner, Late-Eg. Misc. p.134) (cf. Galling 1979:35[D])
In Egypt, these Habiru (Hebrews) were known 'Apiru. They were not the Apiru (Habiru) in Syria-Palestine during the time of Akhenaten, but the Habiru stocked up and mingled with other tribes in Egypt and many of them where workers in temples, construction sites, military services, etc. in Egypt. In Rameses II's reign, some of them were drawers of water, the very job of Moses that time in the house of Jethro. Others were dragging stones for the temple gate of the palace (Pi-Rameses) of the pharaoh.
"And the Egyptians made the descendants of Israel to serve with rigour" -Exodus 1:13
It is a fact that Apiru (Habiru, Hebrews) were workers of king Rameses II in the time he built his temple or palace in Delta.
It is also a fact that Apiru were used as quarry men and manual laborers -tasks typically reserved for the slave population of Egypt - although there is no direct identifying them as "slaves" in Egyptian literature. This practice is reflecting what Moses has been trying to portray about them, that though their ancestors were formerly immigrants but they -the descendants- were treated as slaves by the pharaoh who ordered them to build Pithom and Raamses.
It is also a fact that king Ramesses III (1186-1155 BCE) dedicated goods for the temple of Atum and for Apiru (Habiru), giving some sort of connection between this Atum and the people involved to it. If Atum is an Egyptianized form of Amutu (Adamu, Adam), then Egyptian scribes choice of word ("Apiru," Apiru") is intended since Adam is taught to be taken from 'apar ("dust"), or in Egyptian theology, Atum is a mound (dump of earth).
In Genesis 2:7 it can be summarized with the phrase
" 'apar min-ha adamah "
("dust of the ground").
The word 'Apiru seems to be intendedly derived from 'apar ("dust") in connection with Adam (Adamu, Amutu, Atmu), and became a form of translation for Akkadian 'Habiru" or Aperu.
His son and successor, Ramesses IV (1155-1149 BCE) reported that among the list of men sent to the quarry in Wadi-Hammamat, there were "800 Apiru." This is the last reference to Apiru when Hebrews became rulers of Syria-Palestine: similar disappearance of the Egyptian moon god name "Yah" (homophone of the Hebrew god name) when the Hebrews had more and more used Yah as a name of their God. Needless to say, Egyptians withdrew using the name Apiru (Habiru) and Yah when Hebrews popularized those names.
Not only that Rameses IV had Apiru slave workers, but most likely also his slaves had even built a four-room house (hut) in Medinet Habu near Ramesses III's mortuary temple. Such type of four-room house was the invention of Israelites during the Iron Age (1200-586 BCE). This may mean that Ramesses IV had Israelite workmen.
The workmen were likely commissioned or commanded to deliberately demolish the temple of Ay (which was hacked by Horemheb).
The 4-room house they built in Egypt has an entry through its broad room, identical to its contemporary four-room houses in Tel Masos (Hormah), which were the hiding place of Israelite Levites in the land allotted to Judah. The Judahite owners of this house could be descendants of Judah and Hyksos, and their Hyksos' ancestors could be relatives of the 12th Egyptian Dynasty Syrians. Certain Syrians built the proto-type of 4-room house (known "Mittelsaal Haus") at the stratigraphical level of Avaris' foundation, to the west of the main mound (Tell A) in an agricultural field which is designated ‘Area F,’ in which found a red-haired yellow-skinned colossal cult statue representing Asiatic official, sceptre holding and wearing coat of many colors and made in the royal workshops of Amenemhat III (1860-1814 BCE), during the time that there were no Hyksos (c.1630- c.1523 BCE) ruling in Egypt. This could be the representation of the patriarch of king Rameses II, whose lineage was red-haired and wearing lower garment with tassels. It was king Horemheb who rebuilt some of the temple of red-hair god Seth in Avaris.
The lineage of Moses was practicing of wearing lower garments with tassels (Deut 22:12), and these may be understood as that king Rameses II and Moses somehow, from certain distant ancestors, were relatives.
The Mittelsaal Haus (middle-room house) was revived but in a modified form called 4-room house. The Israelites, mostly the tribe of Judah, had revived it. Mittelsaal Haus was originated in the 4th millennium BCE Mesopotamia, the origin of the race of Jacob (1578-1432), Isaac, and Abraham (1738-1563). Although Abraham originated from Syria, particularly northern Mesopotamia in Urkashdim and Nahur, they did not built houses in the Mittelsaal Haus form in Canaan. Children of Abraham from other women could have intermarried to the ancestors of the Philistines in Gerar or Negeb who might be linked to the Syrian builders of Mittelsaal Haus.
Hyksos' domains in Canaan was in Galilee and in Syria were in Alalakh and Nagar (Tell Brak).
The link of Israelites to Hyksos could be the intermarrying of Judah's children with them. That Judah (b. 1491 BCE) could intermarry Hyksos woman was not an impossibility because of his habit (Gen 38).
Another thing, the tribes of Asherites (Ekwesh), Issacharites (Shakares), and Danites (Denyen) were connected to Hyksos because of intermarrying of their descendants to tassel-wearing tribes of Syria, which were relatives of the Hyksos.
Hebrews living in Wadi Tumilat (from Tell el-Retabeh to Succoth) were designated as "Hyksos" or by Egyptian hieroglyphs as "foreigners." During the time of king Rameses II they left Pithom (Tell el-Retabeh), the workers of which are biblically known "Hebrews," particularly "Israel."
During the Iron Age I (1200-980 BCE), Israelites needed to revive the modified form of Mittelsaal Haus because of the confederation that somehow was connected to Hyksos' descendants, both the foreigners from Europe and native Canaanites.
The possible oldest 4-room house built under the permission of an Israelite leader was the one in the Area B stratum II on the north of Joshua's altar in Mt. Ebal. The Last Bronze Age Collapse (1250-1150 BCE) people of Yahweh who built the Joshua's altar had used the altar sometime between around 1180 & 1138 BCE.
Well constructed 4-room houses were built by Hebrews, of the tribes of Judah and Levi in particular, in Tel Masos (Hormah) around the same time.
And a Tel Masos type 4-room house was built likely by Apiru (Habiru/Hebrews) in Egypt around 1150 BCE.
This could be a tangible evidence of Israelite made house in Egypt during Ramesses IV's time. The Hebrews involved in the construction could be those lived in the Shasu Land of Seir, the hideout of the late Moses (1309-1189 BCE) after transferring from the Shasu Land of Yahweh.
King Ramesses IV published a report of his father, Ramesses III, of bringing back Shasu to Egypt and making them temple-servants (Papyrus Harris I, 76.9-11).
And these Shasu could be his captives from Seir.
"And this is the blessing, wherewith Moses the man of God blessed the children of Israel before his death.
And he said, YHWH came from Sinai, and rose up from
Seir
unto them; He shined forth from mount Paran, and He came with 10,000s of kodesh: from His right hand went a fiery law for them.
Yes, he loved the people; all his saints are in thy hand: and they sat down at thy feet; every one shall receive of thy words.
Moses commanded us a law,... And he was king in Jeshurun, when the heads of the people and the tribes of Israel were gathered together." -Deuteronomy 33:1-5
It was there in Seir before his death when Moses was considered "king" by the leaders of confederation (e.g. Asherites) and of the tribes of Israel. There were ten thousands Kodesh people converted into the faith, expectedly as Horeb of Sinai was between Kadesh-barneah and Seir (Deut 1:2).
King Ramesses III himself via his son explicitly described Yar-su (Moses) as "wer" - meaning 'Syrian great king' - of Kharu (Horite state in Seir) when Queen Tausert (1191-1189 BCE) was the pharaoh, and this is a direct confirmation that before his death Moses was known as a "king" in Seir or Asherites (ancestors of the Phoenicians, whose descendants deified his title "king" into Melchart).
It was also this Ramesses III who conquered the Seirites after Joshua's troops left Seir; and among the captives were probably the Apiru.
In itemizing dedicated goods, Ramesses III listed serfs, Egyptian and foreign (among the foreign serfs are described as "maryanu or soldiers, Apiru, and people already settled in the temple estate"): 86,486 to Thebes (2607 foreigners), 12,364 to Heliopolis (2093 foreign), and 3079 to Memphis (205 foreign).
In this instance, Apiru were used as either foreign serfs or people settled in the temple of Atum together with the soldiers. This is consistent with their job during Rameses II's building projects, when Amenmonē was ordered to...
"Issue grain to the men of the army and to the Apiru who draw stone for the great pylon of Rameses II."
"And they made their lives bitter with hard bondage, in mortar, and in brick, and in all manner of service in the field: all their service, wherein they made them serve, was with rigour." -Exodus 1:14
9) Corroborated Evidence of Exodus 1:14
is the fact that Hebrews (Habiru, Apiru) were used to drag heavy stone, and were tasked to have a daily quota of bricks.
Kenneth Kitchen sees three parallels between Louvre Leather Roll's report of enslavement by Rameses II and the biblical narrative.
The said inscription written around 1275 BCE has described that gangs of workmen were led by two foremen appointed from their own number, which reflects Exodus 5:14, where Hebrew workers must report their produce directly to the Hebrew supervisors (saresim) who in turn had Egyptian senior officers (nogesim). Second, each worker had to manufacture a quota of bricks per day, similar to what Moses' book has reported. Finally, the inscription describes that slaves could petition for time off to observe religious festivals, giving us insight why Moses asks the pharaoh of Rameses to have their 3-day feast for YHWH. This is the evidence that what Moses has related in Hebrews' days in Egypt was factually happening during Rameses II's reign. The three days were not just a guess of a mythical writer, because there were actually no brick-deliveries on Days 1, 7 and 8 of the 1st month of Shemu mentioned in columns 8-9 of Louvre Leather Roll inscription as those days were harvest festival and other festivals. Workers during these festivities became "idle" as they have "to offer to their gods," and that's possibly why after decades the pharaoh when dealing with Moses in 1229 BCE was cautious of allowing additional holidays. The wise answer of the 'acting' pharaoh is that he did not know YHWH, that is, no holiday for God YHWH.
The firstborn son of Rameses was sitting on the throne of the true pharaoh, as Rameses the Great was performing his function as an Egyptian god, letting his son to do the function of a pharaoh in his behalf. The 'acting' pharaoh (crown prince Ramesses B junior) did not know YHWH. It was king Rameses II the Great who knew YHWH as this king was boastfully claiming of subduing Shasu in the Land of Yahweh.
Ipuwer paraphrased the incident by saying: "(Look, he who did not know) his god now offers to him with incense of another (who is) not known (to him)."
"And afterward Moses and Aaron went in, and told Pharaoh, Thus says YHWH God of Israel, Let My people go, that they may hold a feast unto Me in the wilderness.
And Pharaoh said, Who is YHWH, that I should obey His voice to let Israel go? I know not YHWH, neither will I let Israel go.
And they said, The God of the Hebrews has met with us: let us go, we pray thee, 3 days' journey into the desert, and sacrifice unto YHWH our God; lest He fall upon us with pestilence, or with the sword.
And the king of Egypt said unto them, Wherefore do ye, Moses and Aaron, let the people from their works? get you unto your burdens.
And Pharaoh said, Behold, the people of the land now are many, and ye make them rest from their burdens.
And Pharaoh commanded the same day the taskmasters of the people, and their officers, saying,
Ye shall no more give the people straw to make brick, as heretofore: let them go and gather straw for themselves." -Exodus 5:1-7
The intervention of Moses and Aaron resulted to a worst scenario. Hebrews now must have to collect straw for themselves - no supply from supervisors (junior officers) and taskmasters (senior officers) would be brought to them.
"And the taskmasters [nogesim] hasted them, saying, Fulfil your works, your daily tasks, as when there was straw. And the
soterim [foremen]
of the descendants of Israel, which Pharaoh's
nogesim [taskmasters]
had set over them, were beaten, and demanded, Wherefore have ye not fulfilled your task in making brick both yesterday and to day, as heretofore?
"Go therefore now, and work; for there shall no straw be given you, yet shall ye deliver the tally of bricks. And the
šōṭərê [officers]
of the descendants of Israel did see that they were in evil case, after it was said, Ye shall not minish ought from your bricks of your daily quota." - Exodus 5:13,14,18-19
That there was daily quota of making bricks that period is proved true by the Papyrus Anastasi 3, written in 1211 BCE:
"Total, 12 building jobs. Likewise, the men are making bricks in their spells of duty, bringing them for work in the house. They are making quota of bricks daily." -P. Anastasi III, Verso 3:1-3
Backward in time, even in the days when Pi-Rameses was underway of building, workers could hardly reach their quota. Paherypedjet son of Paser, for example, failed to deliver his quota of 2000 bricks. Workers were identified by the name of their fathers, a practice reflected also by Moses in Exodus 6:14-25.
In 1229 BCE, Hebrews had the hard time to perform both the gathering of straw and making of bricks.
"So the people were scattered abroad throughout all the land of Egypt to gather stubble instead of straw." -Exodus 5:12
This took their time, leaving few hours to have for making bricks. As a result, some bricks are wanting of straw. Scientific studies done on bricks found in the Pithom ordered by Rameses II to be built confirmed that some bricks are wanting of straw. This adds to the credence of Moses that they existed during the time of Pithom of Rameses the Great (1279-1213 BCE). Even the minute details of Moses' report are proved accurate.
Corroborating evidence that there was lacking of straw that period is glimpsed in the time of king Seti II (1203-1197 BCE) by the following official's report:
"I am residing at Qenquen-en-ta, without provision, and there are no men to mould bricks and no straw are in the district." -Papyrus Anastasi IV, 12:5–13:8
With this, there is no doubt that Moses is accurate in his report.
Notes:
Moses was the writer of the first edition of the book of "Genesis" is evidenced by the fact that when he wrote his journal/s he mentioned the most popular toponym of his time, the land of "Rameses."
"And Moses wrote their exodus according to their journeys by the commandment of YHWH: and these are their journeys according to their goings out:
They departed from Rameses on the 15th day of the 1st month; on the day after the passover the descendants of Israel went out with an high hand in the sight of all the Egyptians.
And the descendants of Israel removed from Rameses, and camped at Succoth." -Numbers 33:2-3,5
The Bible has positively identified Moses as the original writer who mentioned "Rameses."
For his audience or readers to easily determine the whereabouts of Goshen in Delta, he also mentioned "Rameses" in his story about Joseph and this time as a regional toponym, popular as such during the days of Merneptah.
"And Joseph placed his father and his brethren, and gave them a possession in the land of Egypt, in the best of the land, in the
land of Rameses,
as Pharaoh had commanded." -Genesis 47:11
This "Rameses" mentioning is the evidence that the writer of the first edition of Genesis, Numbers and Exodus is one and the same person.
"And the descendants of Israel journeyed from Rameses to Succoth, about 600 elef foot-persons , beside of weak ones." -Exodus 12:37
"Therefore they did set over them taskmasters to afflict them with their burdens. And they built for Pharaoh treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses." -Exodus 1:11
Adding to Moses' authorship of the first edition of Genesis is the direct paraphrasing:
"For in 6 days YHWH made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the 7th day: wherefore YHWH blessed the sabbath day, and hallowed it." -Exodus 20:11
It is paraphrased in Genesis in this passage:
"Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them.
And on the 7th day God ended His work which He had made; and He rested on the seventh day from all His work which He had made.
And God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it: because that in it he had rested from all his work which God created and made." -Genesis 2:1-3
The writer of Genesis uses also the 13th century BCE toponym "Shalem," probably 4 miles east of Nablus (ancient Shechem).
